Knowledge Concept Essays - Epistemology, Philosophy, Knowledge

Knowledge Concept When discussing the concept of knowledge it must be made clear what type of knowledge is being discussed. Three types of knowledge are proposed in philosophy; object knowledge, know-how knowledge, and propositional knowledge. Object knowledge involves a person, place, or thing. For example saying that I know my friend Antony is object knowledge, implying that I have had personal contact with him and it could also imply that I know facts about him. Know-how consists of abilities such as knowing how to ski. An Olympic skier who goes to the slopes every day to practice has know-how knowledge of skiing. Meanwhile a scientist, who studies the physics of skiing, the physiological make up of the skier and has never skied before, has the third and final type of knowledge, propositional knowledge. This form of knowledge deals with something that is either true or false, in other words the is a proposition stated as the category of propositional knowledge indicates. Propositional knowledge is the most debatable of the three and involves more in depth ideas to it, therefore I will spend my words on this form of knowledge. Basically knowledge demands two things, truth and belief. Belief in the persons mind that what they know is true and truth is self-explainable. But, when it comes down to it knowledge requires more. People can be fooled into believing things, true or not, by other people. These persons have a true belief in what they were told to believe but they don't actually have knowledge of the subject. This where justification comes into play. If I am justified in knowing that my car is red I have evidence to support my claim, I and others have viewed the red paint on the car and my registration has red 2 written as the color of the car. My knowledge is strengthened by the supporting evidence behind my claim. The JTB theory suggests that knowledge consists of true belief and that it is justified. This leads into the argument on what definition of justification is required for knowledge. There is highly reliable evidence and there is infallible evidence. I have highly reliable information that my car is red, but there are variables that could account for the car to appear red in my evidence and actually be pink in true color. Consequently, I can't be sure that my knowledge is purely infallible, in turn weakening my claim. There are three counterexamples to the JTB theory. One argument is that a person may have justified true belief that something will happen, and their justification is highly reliable. Then have the end result of the prediction come true, but not the knowledge about how it came to be the result. For example I may learn that the weather channel has predicted a 90% chance of rain tomorrow. I then conclude that since my car is outside and the weather channel is highly reliable source on weather patterns, my car will get wet tomorrow. The next day it may turn out that the weather channel has had a miss calculation and the storm clouds pass over without releasing a drop of rain, yet my car is sprayed with water by a neighbor watering his flowers. I had good justification in my true belief that my car was going to get wet, but I lack the knowledge about the more specific outcome of the prediction. This is similar to the philosopher Edmund Gettier's counterexample. Another counterexample came from Bertrand Russell, which contemplates a highly reliable clock. While passing by the clock, a man stops to note the time given by the clock. It indicates that the time is 9:55, so the man walks on with the justified notion that this clock is reliable and has given him the correct time. Unknown to the man the clock had stopped dead 3 exactly 24 hours ago. So the man has a justified true belief that the time is 9:55, but he doesn't know that this is the right time. A third counterexample was proposed by Elliott Sober. He explains a fair lottery. 1,000 tickets are sold in this lottery and I have bought ticket number 452, with the odds being 1 in 1,000 that I will be the winner, I make the logical assumption that ticket 452 will not win. As it turns out 452 didn't win and my supposition was correct. My belief was true and I had good reason to believe that my chances of winning were small, but after all I had no

Expressing Obligation in Spanish

Expressing Obligation in Spanish The verb deber and the verb phrase tener que are the two most common ways of expressing obligation in Spanish, to say that someone has to, should, ought or must do something. They are followed by the infinitive form of the verb. A few examples: Tengo que ayudar en las reparaciones. Debo ayudar en las reparaciones. (I have to help with the repairs.)Tiene que comprar y aà ±adir una nueva tarjeta prepagada de tiempo celular. Debe comprar y aà ±adir una nueva tarjeta prepagada de tiempo celular. (You have to buy and add a new prepaid card for cellphone time.)Tenemos que estudiar la historia de Colombia. Debemos estudiar la historia de Colombia. (We should study the history of Colombia.)Tuvo que irse a trabajar. Debià ³ irse a trabajar. (She had to go to work.) As in the above examples, tener que and deber are usually interchangeable. However, tener que usually expresses a stronger sense of obligation than does deber. Note that tener is conjugated irregularly. Deber, however, is conjugated regularly. The phrase no tener ms remedio que is one of the most common ways of expressing extremely strong obligation: No tiene ms remedio que decir la verdad. (He absolutely has to tell the truth.)No me dejas otra alternativa y no tengo ms remedio que aceptar. (You leave me no other choice, and I must accept.) Using Deber for a Weaker Sense of Obligation A weaker sense of obligation can be expressed by using the conditional form of deber. The conditional forms of deber are especially common in questions.  ¿Por quà © deberà ­a comprar un lavaplatos? (Why do I have to buy a dishwasher?)Deberà ­amos salir. (We need to get going.)Los economistas deberà ­an concentrar su atencià ³n en los desempleados. (The economists should focus their attention on the unemployed.) Using Haber De for a Vague Sense of Obligation A vague sense of obligation can also be expressed by use of haber de, although it isnt used in all areas and can sound stuffy. Example: He de estar a dieta, I need to be on a diet. Sometimes the verb necesitar is also used as equivalent of tener que or deber, although it is less common than the corresponding English verb, to need: Necesito obtener certificacià ³n para trabajar. (I need to get certification in order to work.)Necesitas hablar de lo que te preocupa. (You need to talk about whats worrying you.) Note: It is possible that you will hear native speakers substitute deber de for deber when expressing obligation. However, this use of deber is considered substandard by some grammarians and is probably best avoided by those who are learning the language. (The accepted way to use deber de is to express likelihood. Example: Debe de llover en Managua, its probably raining in Managua.)